2.6.1 Problem
The concept of problem can only be understood in conjunction with the concept of solution. A problem is an unwanted (F1) state-of-affairs (F2) (C1). Once identified (F3), a problem requires a solution (F4). The solution resolves the problem by changing the unwanted state-of affairs to a wanted state-of-affairs. (C2) The concepts of problem and solution are thus closely linked. However, not all problems have a solution (F5); but all solutions have problems. (F6) Problems may have more than one solution (F7) and solutions more than one problem. (F8) (C3) Solutions may be novel or known from their resolution of earlier problems. (F9) (C4)
Footnotes and CitationsFootnotes
(F1) ‘Desired’ or ‘acceptable’ would be equally good here.
(F2) State-of-affairs, here, includes people, artefacts and the world more generally.
(F3) Problems are not natural phenomena and need to be identified or (better) diagnosed.
(F4) If a problem does not require a solution, then it is not really a problem.
(F5) Hence the concept of the ‘unsolved problem’.
(F6) Even the ‘solution in search of a problem’ is not really a solution till it identifies its problem.
(F7) And equally good solutions at that.
(F8) Also, classes of solution may resolve classes of problem.
(F9) Hence, design knowledge seeks design solutions to design problems.
Citations
Dowell and Long (1989)
(C1) ‘Any general problem has the necessary property of scope.’ (Page 1514, Lines 47 and 48)
(C2) ‘A discipline’s practices construct solutions to it general design problem.’ (Page 1517, Line 46)
C3) ‘Disciplines appear to differ in the completeness with which they specify solutions to their respective design problems.’ (Page 1518, Lines 3 and 4)
(C4) ‘The features and properties of artefacts or systems that will constitute an optimal solution to a general design problem.’ (Page, 1520, Lines 14 and 15)
2.6.2 Design
The concepts of ‘design’ and ‘implementation’ are closely linked to each other. (F1) In general, designs are for implementation and implementations are of designs. (F2) (C1) (C7) A design represents (F3) an object or artefact. (C6) An implementation realises (F4) the object or artefact. (F5) (C2) However, designs may remain unimplemented and implementations may not have been designed. (F6) (C3) (C4) (C5)
Footnotes and CitationsFootnotes
(F1) In fact, their contrast is an essential feature of both their meanings.
(F2) However, design and implementation also exist independently of each other (see also (6)).
(F3) The representation may take many forms: sketch; text; drawing; diagram; model; instructions etc.
(F4) ‘Realises’ here could as well be replaced by: ‘constructs’; ‘makes’; ‘renders’ etc.
(F5) Design can also be used of people, as in education or training.
(F6) An unimplemented design remains a design. An undesigned implementation is not, however, strictly speaking an implementation; but simply an object or artefact.
Citations
Dowell and Long (1989)
(C1) ‘… one class of general problem is that of the general design problem and includes the design of artefact (of bridges, for example) and the design of ‘states of the world’ (public administration, for example).’ (Page 1514, Lines 43-45)
(C2) ‘Thus, HCI is a discipline addressing a general design problem expressed informally as: ‘to design human-computer interactions for effective working.’ (Page 1515, Lines 9 and 10)
(C3) ‘The design disciplines are ranged according to the ‘hardness’ or ‘softness’ of their respective general design problem.’ (Page 1517, Lines 31 and 32)
(C4) ‘… disciplines appear to differ in the completeness with which they specify solutions to their respective general design problems before implementation occurs.’ (Page 1518, Lines 1 and 2)
(C5) ‘Taken together, the dimension of problem hardness, characterising general design problems and the dimension of specification completeness, characterising discipline practices, constitute a classification space for design disciplines.’ (Page 1518, Lines 15-17)
(C6) ‘the concern of an Engineering HCI discipline would be the design of interactive worksystems for performance.’ (Page 1522, Lines 13 and 14)
(C7) ‘Instances of the general design problem may include the development of a worksystem, or the utilisation of a worksystem within an organisation.’ (Page 1532, Lines 16-18)
2.6.3 Design Problem
The concept of ‘design problem’ is a conjunction of ‘design’ and ‘problem’. (C1) However, the order makes clear, that design qualifies problem and not the reverse. (F1) (C2) Here, the concept of design problem is defined by intersecting the concept of design (2.6.1) with the concept of problem (2.6.2), a definition in which the latter is qualified by the former. (C3) A design problem is a state-of-design affairs (F2), which is not as wanted. (F3) Once identified, a design problem requires a design solution, which represents the designed state-of-affairs and which, if implemented, realises that state-of-affairs. (F4) (C4) (C5) However, not all design problems have design solutions and not all design solutions are implemented. (C6) But all design solutions imply design problems. (F5) Design problems may have more than one design solution and design solutions more than one problem. (C7) The latter may have more than one implementation. (C8) Design solutions may be novel or known from their resolution of earlier design problems. (F6) (C9)
Footnotes and CitationsFootnotes
(F1) Design problems, then, are a subset of problems. Problems designs, in contrast, are a subset of designs.
(F2) Design state-of-affairs concern objects; artefacts; people; and the world, more generally.
(F3) More specifically, the people, objects, or states-of-affairs expressed by the design problem, are not as wanted.
(F4) The concepts of design problem and design solution are, thus, closely linked.
(F5) If no design problem is implied, then the so-called design solution is only a design and not a solution.
(F6) Such knowledge constitutes design knowledge.
Citations
Dowell and Long (1989)
(C1) ‘…….. a conception of the general design problem …….. is expressed informally as: ‘to design human interactions with computers for effective working’.’ (Page 1513, Lines 12-13)
(C2) ‘A conception is a unitary (and consensus) view of a general design problem.’ (Page 1514, Lines 19)
(C3) ‘Most definitions of disciplines assume three primary characteristics: a general problem; practices, providing solutions to that problem; and knowledge, supporting those practices.’ (Page 1514, Lines 39-41)
(C4) ‘…….. one class of general problem is that of the general design problem and includes the design of artefacts (of bridges, for example) and the design of ‘states of the world’ (of public administration, for example).’ (Page 1524, Lines 43-45)
(C5) The scope of the HCI general design problem includes: humans, both as individuals, as groups, and as social organisations; computers, both as programmable machines, stand-alone and networked, and as functionally embedded devices within machines; and work, both with regard to individuals and the organisations in which it occurs. (Page 1515, Lines 11-14)
(C6) ‘…….. The ‘design’ disciplines are ranged according to the ‘hardness’ or ‘softness’ of their respective general design problems. …….. (Page 1517, Lines 31 and 32)
(C7) ‘A discipline’s practices construct solutions to its general design problem…….. disciplines appear to differ in the completeness with which they specify solutions to their respective general design problems before implementation occurs. ……..’ (Page 1517, Line 46; Page 1518, Lines 2 and 3).
(C8) ‘Taken together, the dimension of problem hardness, characterising general design problems, and the dimension of specification completeness, characterising discipline practices, constitute a classification space for design disciplines……..’ (Page 1518, Lines 20-22)
(C9) ‘The general design problem of HF then, is one of producing implementable specifications of human behaviours {U} which, interacting with computer behaviours {C}, are constituted within a worksystem {S} whose performance conforms with a desired performance (Pd).’ (Page 1523, Lines 11-14)