4.6.1 Design
The concepts of ‘design’ (C1) and ‘implementation’ are closely linked to each other. (F1) (C2) In general, designs are for implementation and implementations are of designs. (F2) A design represents (F3) an object or artefact. (C4) An implementation realises (F4) the object or artefact. (F5) (C5) However, designs may remain unimplemented and implementations may not have been designed. (F6) (C3)
Footnotes and CitationsFootnotes
(F1) In fact, their contrast is an essential feature of both their meanings.
(F2) However, design and implementation also exist independently of each other (see also (6)).
(F3) The representation may take many forms: sketch; text; drawing; diagram; model; instructions etc.
(F4) ‘Realises’ here could as well be replaced by: ‘constructs’; ‘makes’; ‘renders’ etc.
(F5) Design can also be used of people, as in education or training.
(F6) An unimplemented design remains a design. An undesigned implementation is not, however, strictly speaking an implementation; but simply an object or artefact.
Citations
Dowell and Long (1989)
(C1) ‘… one class of general problem is that of the general design problem and includes the design of artefact (of bridges, for example) and the design of ‘states of the world’ (public administration, for example).’ (Page 1514, Lines 43-45)
(C2) ‘Thus, HCI is a discipline addressing a general design problem expressed informally as: ‘to design human-computer interactions for effective working.’ (Page 1515, Lines 9 and 10)
(C3) ‘… disciplines appear to differ in the completeness with which they specify solutions to their respective general design problems before implementation occurs.’ (Page 1518, Lines 1 and 2)
(C4) ‘the concern of an Engineering HCI discipline would be the design of interactive worksystems for performance.’ (Page 1522, Lines 13 and 14)
(C5) ‘Instances of the general design problem may include the development of a worksystem, or the utilisation of a worksystem within an organisation.’ (Page 1532, Lines 16-18)
4.6.2 Practice
Practice can be contrasted with knowledge. (F1) (C1) The latter has two primary modes of expression. Knowing that (something is the case, that is, for example, a fact, a theory etc) and knowing how (that is, a skill, a method etc for doing something). Practice recruits both types of knowledge to take effective action to achieve goals. (F2) (C2) Knowledge, then, is ‘put into action’, that is, used, made use of, utilised, applied etc. Useful contrasts between types of practice include: theory/action; implicit/explicit/formal/informal; and systematic/non-systematic. (F3) (C3)
Footnotes and Citations
Footnotes
F1 See also 3.6.2
F2 Goals set by the HCI Design Problem – see 4.6.3 Design Practice.
F3 Different approaches to HCI, for example, craft, engineering etc employ these different types of practice – see 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3.
Citations
Long and Dowell (1989)
(C1) ‘The framework expresses the essential characteristics of the HCI discipline, and can be summarised as: ‘the use of HCI knowledge to support practices seeking solutions to the general problem of HCI’. (Page 9, Lines 16-19)
(C2) “All definitions of disciplines make reference to discipline knowledge as the product of research or more generally of a field of study. Knowledge can be public (ultimately formal) or private (ultimately experiential). It may assume a number of forms; for example, it may be tacit, formal, experiential, codified – as in theories, laws and principles etc. It may also be maintained in a number of ways; for example, it may be expressed in journals, or learning systems, or it may only be embodied in procedures and tools. All disciplines would appear to have knowledge as a component (for example, scientific discipline knowledge, engineering discipline knowledge, medical discipline knowledge, etc). Knowledge, therefore, is a necessary characteristic of a discipline.’ (Page 11, Lines 30-38)
Dowell and Long (1989)
(C3) ‘The contemporary HF discipline does not possess either methodological or substantive engineering principles. The heuristics it possesses are either ‘rules of thumb’ derived from experience or guidelines derived from psychological theories and findings. Neither guidelines nor rules of thumb offer assurance of their efficacy in any given instance, and particularly with regard to the effectiveness of a design. The methods and models of HF (as opposed to methodological and substantive principles) are similarly without such an assurance.” (Page 1520, Lines 21-28)
4.6.3 Design Practice
The concept of ‘design practice’ is a conjunction of ‘design’ and ‘practice’. However, the order makes clear, that design qualifies practice and not the reverse. (F1) Here, the concept of design practice is defined by intersecting the concept of design (4.6.1) with the concept of practice (4.6.2), a definition in which the latter is qualified by the former.
A design problem (see 2.6.3) is a state-of-design affairs, which is not as wanted. (F2) Once identified, a design problem requires a design solution, which represents the designed state-of-affairs and which, if implemented, realises that state-of-affairs. Design practice is supported by knowledge to solve the design problem. (C1) The support can be substantive (knowing what) or methodological (knowing how) or both. (F3)
However, not all design problems have the necessary design practice for their solution. But all design is intended to addresses one or more design problems. Design may be novel or carried forward from its resolution of earlier design problems. (C2)
Footnotes and CitationsFootnotes
(F1) Design practice, then, is a subset of practice. Practice designs, in contrast, are a subset of designs.
(F2) Design state-of-affairs concern objects; artefacts; people; and the world, more generally. The latter, then, constitute the scope of the design practice.
(F3) The concepts of design problem and design solution and the practice required to transform the former into the latter are, thus, closely linked.
Citations
Long and Dowell (1989) Citations
(C1) ‘The framework expresses the essential characteristics of the HCI discipline, and can be summarised as: ‘the use of HCI knowledge to support practices seeking solutions to the general problem of HCI’. (Page 9, Lines 16-19)
Dowell and Long (1989) Citations
(C2) ‘Most definitions of disciplines assume three primary characteristics: a general problem; practices, providing solutions to that problem; and (6) ‘There is no formal structure within which experience accumulated in the successful development of previous systems can be recruited to support solutions to the new problems, except through the memory and intuitions of the designer.’ (Page 1516, Lines 28-31)